KOMISI PEMBERANTASAN KORUPSI

Komisi Pemberantasan Korupsi 

Komisi Pemberantasan Korupsi, atau disingkat menjadi KPK, adalah komisi di Indonesia yang dibentuk pada tahun 2003 untuk mengatasi, menanggulangi dan memberantas korupsi di Indonesia. Komisi ini didirikan berdasarkan kepada Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 30 Tahun 2002 mengenai Komisi Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana Korupsi. Saat ini KPK dipimpin bersama oleh 4 orang wakil ketuanya, yakni Chandra Marta Hamzah, Bibit Samad Rianto, Mochammad Jasin, dan Hayono Umar, setelah Perpu Plt. KPK ditolak oleh DPR. Pada 25 November, M. Busyro Muqoddas terpilih menjadi ketua KPK setelah melalui proses pemungutan suara oleh Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.

* Sejarah lembaga pemberantasan korupsi di Indonesia

Orde Lama

Kabinet Djuanda

Di masa Orde Lama, tercatat dua kali dibentuk badan pemberantasan korupsi. Yang pertama, dengan perangkat aturan Undang-Undang Keadaan Bahaya, lembaga ini disebut Panitia Retooling Aparatur Negara (Paran). Badan ini dipimpin oleh A.H. Nasution dan dibantu oleh dua orang anggota, yakni Profesor M. Yamin dan Roeslan Abdulgani. Kepada Paran inilah semua pejabat harus menyampaikan data mengenai pejabat tersebut dalam bentuk isian formulir yang disediakan. Mudah ditebak, model perlawanan para pejabat yang korup pada saat itu adalah bereaksi keras dengan dalih yuridis bahwa dengan doktrin pertanggungjawaban secara langsung kepada Presiden, formulir itu tidak diserahkan kepada Paran, tapi langsung kepada Presiden. Diimbuhi dengan kekacauan politik, Paran berakhir tragis, deadlock, dan akhirnya menyerahkan kembali pelaksanaan tugasnya kepada Kabinet Djuanda.

 

Operasi Budhi

Pada 1963, melalui Keputusan Presiden No. 275 Tahun 1963, pemerintah menunjuk lagi A.H. Nasution, yang saat itu menjabat sebagai Menteri Koordinator Pertahanan dan Keamanan/Kasab, dibantu oleh Wiryono Prodjodikusumo dengan lembaga baru yang lebih dikenal dengan Operasi Budhi. Kali ini dengan tugas yang lebih berat, yakni menyeret pelaku korupsi ke pengadilan dengan sasaran utama perusahaan-perusahaan negara serta lembaga-lembaga negara lainnya yang dianggap rawan praktek korupsi dan kolusi.

Lagi-lagi alasan politis menyebabkan kemandekan, seperti Direktur Utama Pertamina yang tugas ke luar negeri dan direksi lainnya menolak karena belum ada surat tugas dari atasan, menjadi penghalang efektivitas lembaga ini. Operasi ini juga berakhir, meski berhasil menyelamatkan keuangan negara kurang-lebih Rp 11 miliar. Operasi Budhi ini dihentikan dengan pengumuman pembubarannya oleh Soebandrio kemudian diganti menjadi Komando Tertinggi Retooling Aparat Revolusi (Kontrar) dengan Presiden Soekarno menjadi ketuanya serta dibantu oleh Soebandrio dan Letjen Ahmad Yani. Bohari pada tahun 2001 mencatatkan bahwa seiring dengan lahirnya lembaga ini, pemberantasan korupsi di masa Orde Lama pun kembali masuk ke jalur lambat, bahkan macet.

Orde Baru

Pada masa awal Orde Baru, melalui pidato kenegaraan pada 16 Agustus 1967, Soeharto terang-terangan mengkritik Orde Lama, yang tidak mampu memberantas korupsi dalam hubungan dengan demokrasi yang terpusat ke istana. Pidato itu seakan memberi harapan besar seiring dengan dibentuknya Tim Pemberantasan Korupsi (TPK), yang diketuai Jaksa Agung. Namun, ternyata ketidakseriusan TPK mulai dipertanyakan dan berujung pada kebijakan Soeharto untuk menunjuk Komite Empat beranggotakan tokoh-tokoh tua yang dianggap bersih dan berwibawa, seperti Prof Johannes, I.J. Kasimo, Mr Wilopo, dan A. Tjokroaminoto, dengan tugas utama membersihkan Departemen Agama, Bulog, CV Waringin, PT Mantrust, Telkom, Pertamina, dan lain-lain.

Empat tokoh bersih ini jadi tanpa taji ketika hasil temuan atas kasus korupsi di Pertamina, misalnya, sama sekali tidak digubris oleh pemerintah. Lemahnya posisi komite ini pun menjadi alasan utama. Kemudian, ketika Laksamana Sudomo diangkat sebagai Pangkopkamtib, dibentuklah Operasi Tertib (Opstib) dengan tugas antara lain juga memberantas korupsi. Perselisihan pendapat mengenai metode pemberantasan korupsi yang bottom up atau top down di kalangan pemberantas korupsi itu sendiri cenderung semakin melemahkan pemberantasan korupsi, sehingga Opstib pun hilang seiring dengan makin menguatnya kedudukan para koruptor di singgasana Orde Baru.

Era Reformasi

Di era reformasi, usaha pemberantasan korupsi dimulai oleh B.J. Habibie dengan mengeluarkan UU Nomor 28 Tahun 1999 tentang Penyelenggaraan Negara yang Bersih dan Bebas dari Korupsi, Kolusi, dan Nepotisme berikut pembentukan berbagai komisi atau badan baru, seperti Komisi Pengawas Kekayaan Pejabat Negara (KPKPN), KPPU, atau Lembaga Ombudsman. Presiden berikutnya, Abdurrahman Wahid, membentuk Tim Gabungan Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana Korupsi (TGPTPK) melalui Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 19 Tahun 2000. Namun, di tengah semangat menggebu-gebu untuk memberantas korupsi dari anggota tim ini, melalui suatu judicial review Mahkamah Agung, TGPTPK akhirnya dibubarkan dengan logika membenturkannya ke UU Nomor 31 Tahun 1999. Nasib serupa tapi tak sama dialami oleh KPKPN, dengan dibentuknya Komisi Pemberantasan Korupsi, tugas KPKPN melebur masuk ke dalam KPK, sehingga KPKPN sendiri hilang dan menguap. Artinya, KPK-lah lembaga pemberantasan korupsi terbaru yang masih eksis.

* Regulasi

Dasar hukum KPK

• UU RI nomor 30 Tahun 2002 Tentang Komisi Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana Korupsi
• Kepres RI No. 73 Tahun 2003 Tentang Pembentukan Panitia Seleksi Calon Pimpinan Komisi Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana Korupsi
• PP RI No. 19 Tahun 2000 Tentang Tim Gabungan Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana Korupsi

Undang-Undang

• UU RI No. 28 Tahun 1999 Tentang Penyelenggaraan Negara Yang Bersih dan Bebas Dari KKN
• UU RI No. 31 Tahun 1999 Tentang Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana Korupsi
• UU RI No. 20 Tahun 2001 Tentang Perubahan Atas UU No. 31 Tahun 1999 Tentang Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana Korupsi
• UU RI No. 25 Tahun 2003 Tentang Perubahan Atas UU No. 15 Tahun 2002 Tentang Tindak Pidana Pencucian Uang Peraturan Pemerintah

• PP RI No. 71 Tahun 2000 Tentang Tata Cara Pelaksanaan Peran Serta Masyarakat dan Pemberian Penghargaan Dalam Pencegahan dan Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana Korupsi
• PP RI No. 109 Tahun 109 Tahun 2000 Tentang Kedudukan Keuangan Kepala Daerah dan Wakil Kepala Daerah

* 10 Fakta tentang KPK

1) KPK disahkan oleh DPR pada tanggal 19 Desember 2003 pada Era pemerintahan Presiden Megawati Soekarno Putri.

2) KPK sebenarnya merupakan "Anak yang tidak diinginkan" karena pembentukan KPK itu sendiri hanya sekedar formalitas pada awalnya. Namun ternyata KPK menjelma menjadi sebuah lembaga yang memiliki Taring untuk memberantas para Koruptor di Indonesia.

3) KPK saat ini memiliki Jumlah Pegawai 655 orang dengan unsur penindakan hanya 185 orang, untuk melayani sekitar 230 juta penduduk Indonesia.

4) KPK terdiri atas Gabungan seluruh unsur masyarakat mulai dari Profesional, pengacara, bankir, auditor, kepolisian, kejaksaan, LSM, Wartawan, dsb. Yang membuat mereka Tidak memiliki kepentingan tertentu atau Ego sektoral.

5) Total Jumlah pengaduan yang masuk sampai dengan Juni 2009 adalah 30.000 pengaduan. Bayangin gak sih hampir semua perkara korupsi Bertumpu pada KPK karena dipercaya? (http://www.kpk.go.id/modules/news/ar...p?storyid=3214)

6) Belum pernah ada Perkara Korupsi yang masuk ke KPK dihentikan (karena aturan memang tidak membolehkan kecuali TSK meninggal). Dan belum pernah ada Perkara yang ditangani KPK di Vonis Bebas oleh Pengadilan Tipikor.

7) KPK pernah menangani perkara yang melibatkan personilnya sendiri yaitu AKP. Suparman dan perkara Luar yaitu Jaksa Urip, sehingga kredibilitasnya diakui oleh Dunia Internasional.

8) Lembaga Penanganan Korupsi di Luar negeri khususnya Asia beramai-ramai melakukan studi banding dan belajar dari KPK atas pencapaiannya yang sangat luar biasa terutama saat menangkap pejabat negara mulai DPR sampai dengan Besannya Presiden. Hal itu menjadikan Indonesia naik derajatnya di Mata Internasional dan memperbaiki Iklim Investasi.

9) Belum pernah ada lembaga yang memiliki pencapaian penanganan korupsi yang sistematis seperti KPK dibanding lembaga penegak hukum lainnya dalam kurun waktu yang sangat singkat, dengan pengembalian kerugian negara pada semester satu Tahun 2009 adalah 4 Triliun Rupiah dengan hanya menggunakan Anggaran negara oleh KPK sebanyak 50 Milyar. (http://www.tvone.co.id/berita/view/1..._rp_4_triliun/)

10) KPK dicintai oleh Seluruh rakyat Indonesia (Kecuali koruptor) dengan bukti mereka berada dibelakang KPK saat KPK diberondong dan dilemahkan dengan kriminalisasi kewenangan KPK yang sangat Absurd, dan menjamurnya gerakan-gerakan baik secara Riil di lapangan maupun di dunia maya seperti Gerakan 1.000.000 dukung Chandra Hamzah dan Bibid Samad Rianto.

Sumber:

id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komisi_Pemberantasan_Korupsi

artikel-lounge.blogspot.com/2009/11/10-fakta-tentang-kpk.html

The Basic of Social Science

I'd like to introduce you "The Social Science" :)
check it out ;)
 

* History

The history of the social sciences begins in the roots of ancient philosophy. In Ancient history, there was no difference between mathematics and the study of history, poetry or politics. This unity of science as descriptive remains and deductive reasoning from axioms created a scientific framework.

The Age of Enlightenment saw a revolution within natural philosophy, changing the basic framework by which individuals understood what was scientific. In some quarters, the accelerating trend of mathematical studies presumed a reality independent of the observer and worked by its own rules. Social sciences came forth from the moral philosophy of the time and was influenced by the Age of Revolutions, such as the Industrial revolution and the French revolution. The social sciences developed from the sciences (experimental and applied), or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, relating to the social improvement of a group of interacting entities.

The beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in various grand encyclopedia of Diderot, with articles from Rousseau and other pioneers. The growth of the social sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period saw "social science" first used as a distinct conceptual field. Social science was influenced by positivism, focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative; metaphysical speculation was avoided. Auguste Comte used the term "science social" to describe the field, taken from the ideas of Charles Fourier; Comte also referred to the field as social physics.

Following this period, there were five paths of development that sprang forth in the Social Sciences, influenced by Comte or other fields. One route that was taken was the rise of social research. Large statistical surveys were undertaken in various parts of the United States and Europe. Another route undertaken was initiated by Émile Durkheim, studying "social facts", and Vilfredo Pareto, opening metatheoretical ideas and individual theories. A third means developed, arising from the methodological dichotomy present, in which the social phenomena was identified with and understood; this was championed by figures such as Max Weber. The fourth route taken, based in economics, was developed and furthered economic knowledge as a hard science. The last path was the correlation of knowledge and social values; the antipositivism and verstehen sociology of Max Weber firmly demanded on this distinction. In this route, theory (description) and prescription were non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject.

Around the turn of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters. After the use of classical theories since the end of the scientific revolution, various fields substituted mathematics studies for experimental studies and examining equations to build a theoretical structure. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology. Conversely, the interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary nature of scientific inquiry into human behavior and social and environmental factors affecting it made many of the natural sciences interested in some aspects of social science methodology. Examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research of medicine, sociobiology, neuropsychology, bioeconomics and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative research and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of human action and its implications and consequences. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a free-standing discipline of applied mathematics. Statistical methods were used confidently.

In the contemporary period, Karl Popper and Talcott Parsons influenced the furtherance of the social sciences. Researchers continues to search for a unified consensus on what methodology might have the power and refinement to connect a proposed "grand theory" with the various midrange theories which, with considerable success, continue to provide usable frameworks for massive, growing data banks; for more, see consilience. At present though, the various realms of social science progress in a myriad of ways, increasing the overall knowledge of society. The social sciences will for the foreseeable future be composed of different zones in the research of, and sometime distinct in approach toward, the field.

The term "social science" may refer either to the specific sciences of society established by thinkers such as Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber, or more generally to all disciplines outside of noble science and arts. By the late 19th century, the academic social sciences were constituted of five fields: jurisprudence and amendment of the law, education, health, economy and trade, and art.

At the turn of the 21st century, the expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. 

Methodology and Theory

* Social Research

The origin of the survey can be traced back at least early as the Domesday Book in 1086, whilst some scholars pinpoint the origin of demography to 1663 with the publication of John Graunt's Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality. Social research began most intentionally, however, with the positivist philosophy of science in the 19th century.

In contemporary usage, "social research" is a relatively autonomous term, encompassing the work of practitioners from various disciplines which share in its aims and methods. Social scientists employ a range of methods in order to analyse a vast breadth of social phenomena; from census survey data derived from millions of individuals, to the in-depth analysis of a single agents' social experiences; from monitoring what is happening on contemporary streets, to the investigation of ancient historical documents. The methods originally rooted in classical sociology and statistical mathematics have formed the basis for research in other disciplines, such as political science, media studies, and market research.

Social research methods may be divided into two broad schools:

• Quantitative designs approach social phenomena through quantifiable evidence, and often rely on statistical analysis of many cases (or across intentionally designed treatments in an experiment) to create valid and reliable general claims.

• Qualitative designs emphasize understanding of social phenomena through direct observation, communication with participants, or analysis of texts, and may stress contextual and subjective accuracy over generality

Social scientists will commonly combine quantitative and qualitative approaches as part of a multi-strategy design. Questionnaires, field-based data collection, archival database information and laboratory-based data collections are some of the measurement techniques used. It is noted the importance of measurement and analysis, focusing on the (difficult to achieve) goal of objective research or statistical hypothesis testing. A mathematical model uses mathematical language to describe a system. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed 'mathematical modelling' (also modeling). Eykhoff (1974) defined a mathematical model as 'a representation of the essential aspects of an existing system (or a system to be constructed) which presents knowledge of that system in usable form'. Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to dynamical systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game theoretic models.

These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a variety of abstract structures. The system is a set of interacting or interdependent entities, real or abstract, forming an integrated whole. The concept of an integrated whole can also be stated in terms of a system embodying a set of relationships which are differentiated from relationships of the set to other elements, and from relationships between an element of the set and elements not a part of the relational regime. Dynamical system modeled as a mathematical formalization has fixed "rule" which describes the time dependence of a point's position in its ambient space. Small changes in the state of the system correspond to small changes in the numbers. The evolution rule of the dynamical system is a fixed rule that describes what future states follow from the current state. The rule is deterministic: for a given time interval only one future state follows from the current state.

* Theory

Other social scientists emphasize the subjective nature of research. These writers share social theory perspectives that include various types of the following:

• Critical theory is the examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across social sciences and humanities disciplines.
• Dialectical materialism is the philosophy of Karl Marx, which he formulated by taking the dialectic of Hegel and joining it to the Materialism of Feuerbach.
• Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, or philosophical discourse, it aims to understand the nature of gender inequality.
• Marxist theories, such as revolutionary theory and class theory, cover work in philosophy which is strongly influenced by Karl Marx's materialist approach to theory or which is written by Marxists.
• Phronetic social science is an approach to the study of social – including political and economic – phenomena based on a contemporary interpretation of the classical Greek concept phronesis, variously translated as practical judgment, common sense, or prudence.
• Post-colonial theory are reactions to the cultural legacy of colonialism.
• Postmodernism refer to a point of departure for works of literature, drama, architecture, cinema, and design, as well as in marketing and business and in the interpretation of history, law, culture and religion in the late 20th century.
• Rational choice theory is a framework for understanding and often formally modeling social and economic behavior.
• Social constructionism is knowledge that consider how social phenomena develop in social contexts.
• Structuralism is an approach to the human sciences that attempts to analyze a specific field (for instance, mythology) as a complex system of interrelated parts.
• Structural functionalism is a sociological paradigm which addresses what social functions various elements of the social system perform in regard to the entire system.

Other fringe social scientists delve in alternative nature of research. These writers share social theory perspectives that include various types of the following:

• Intellectual critical-ism describes a sentiment of critique towards, or evaluation of, intellectuals and intellectual pursuits.
• Scientific criticalism is a position critical of science and the scientific method.
• Rational criticalism is a cultural reaction against positivism in the early 20th century.

 * Syarifah Aisyah 16610791

    2 SA 02

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science